TIRF’s Research Topics

Beginning in 2019, there were two changes made to TIRF’s research priorities. The first change is that the former list of priorities has been restructured and relabeled as “topics” under three macro categories: (1) Language Planning and Policy; (2) Curriculum, Instruction, and Teacher Preparation; and (3) Language Assessment. Under each of these three main priorities, several topics are listed. So, for example, an applicant doing research on the topic of English as a medium of instruction (EMI) might focus on language planning and policy related to EMI, or focus on language assessment for instructors teaching via EMI.

TIRF reserves the right to change its priority topics at any time.

LANGUAGE PLANNING AND POLICY

English as a Medium of Instruction

Revised in 2017; First Adopted in 2015

In many educational contexts around the world, English has undergone an instructional shift as it has changed from its position as a foreign language to a medium of instruction. In other words, English is being used to deliver and teach content in the sciences, math, history, business, and engineering in public and private education and at all stages—primary, secondary, and tertiary. Many stakeholders (e.g., parents, policymakers, and teachers) see English medium instruction (EMI) as a tool for creating opportunities for English learners to achieve success in both educational and workplace environments and join a global academic and workplace community. Because EMI has implications for English learning and the formation of policy and because little empirical research has been conducted on EMI, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of this phenomenon.

TIRF’s research priority on EMI may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

reasons for introducing EMI in particular contexts;
timetables for introducing EMI into educational systems;
effective methods for delivering EMI;
consequences on teaching, learning, and assessment of introducing EMI;
professional development needs of teachers using EMI;
professional development activities and opportunities provided for teachers who use EMI;
determination of the English proficiency level needed by EMI teachers;
types of teaching and learning resources being used in EMI contexts;
code-switching, plurilingualism, and/or translanguaging in EMI contexts;
the role of the EMI teacher in creating opportunities for learning important content and developing language skills in educational contexts; and
the role of the EMI teacher in creating opportunities for learning important content and developing language skills in the workplace.

Language Planning and Policy

Revised in 2017; First Adopted in 2013

Language planning encompasses all the processes, formal and informal, overt and covert, which shape the direction and nature of change in language. Language policy involves explicit decisions usually taken by authorities to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a language or language variety in a particular speech community, an institution or in a geo-political space, such as a nation. Some scholars envisage language policy as the superordinate category and see language planning as referring to the diverse concrete steps of its implementation. Language practices is also an important category since how language is used can often contain rhetoric, modeling, or ideology that influences and leads to change in the form of language itself.

Governments and institutions often undertake language policy and planning initiatives to influence or change the language and literacy practices within a society. In recent years there has been an upsurge of practical language planning and policy making as a result of economic globalization, increased population movements, and the expansion of communication technologies linking all parts of the world in real time. Global English is a key part of these phenomena.

TIRF’s research priority on language planning and policy may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

levels and/or types of language planning;
language planners and their roles;
failed plans and policies;
the roles of local legal frameworks on LPP;
link(s) between political theory and processes of LPP;
social issues and LPP;
social identity and power in language use contexts;
language rights for linguistic minorities;
gaps between what language policy proclaims and what is delivered;
the influence of LPP on different social, regional or ethnic groups;
teachers’ interpretations, modifications, enactments, and/or rejections of language policy;
reactions to language policies in the media and/or among specific professional groups;
the effects of communication technologies on language change and how these effects are addressed in language planning;
the marketing of higher education internationally and its impact on the language(s) of instruction; and
the effects of the global use of English in science publishing.

Plurilingualism in Business, Industry, the Professions, and Educational Contexts

Revised in 2015, 2017; First Adopted in 2008

TIRF seeks research proposals on the effects of plurilingualism in business, industry, the professions, and education, including language-learning classrooms. We use the term plurilingualism to refer to an individual user’s knowledge of several languages, and we place the emphasis on the notion of partial competence and on differing levels of proficiency for different languages and different language skills. Plurilingual users may have jagged profiles related to skill development in several languages, which may be only rudimentary in some languages and very context-specific.

TIRF wishes to promote research on plurilingualism for several reasons. First, TIRF is interested in research on English and its relationship with other languages within the concept of plurilingualism because globalization and internationalization pose new challenges to social cohesion and integration across countries. TIRF is also interested in promoting research on plurilingualism because the development of language skills remains essential if individuals are to benefit from opportunities in employment and education. In addition, language skill development is also necessary for citizens to participate actively in the social and political processes, which are an integral part of democratic citizenship in multilingual societies—societies in which different languages co-exist in a geographical area. These concerns may also be relevant within multilingual businesses or corporations in which different languages not only co-exist but may also represent policy for the business or corporation for employees at various management levels. Many countries around the world also state their goals for education in terms of developing multicultural and intercultural citizens who are capable of interacting in a number of languages across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

TIRF’s research priority on plurilingualism in business, industry, the professions, and education may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

policies of corporations, businesses, and educational institutions toward plurilingualism;
promotion and enforcement of policies related to plurilingualism;
how policies of plurilingualism impact businesses, corporations, or educational institutions;
the impact of a policy of plurilingualism on employees, including teachers;
the assessment of plurilingualism in the workplace, its uses, and its effects;
opportunities provided in workplace environments to support plurilingual language development;
the evaluation of language education programs in the workplace;
the influence of policies related to plurilingualism on hiring decisions; and
classroom practices that encourage plurilingualism.

Research on Revitalization of Endangered Indigenous Languages (policy and planning focus)

First Adopted in 2018

Many of the world’s minority languages are disappearing. Between 1490 and 2000 CE about half of the world’s languages died out. If the current trend continues, 90 percent of the existing languages would become extinct in 100 years. This loss to language diversity alone on our planet is staggering, to say nothing of the ethical and human rights issues that underpin such a loss, as well as the aesthetic, spiritual, and scientific concerns such a loss raises for humanity itself. It is true that languages become extinct for a variety of reasons. Economical, geographical, religious, political, and psychological factors all exert their influence on the process of language shift. However, no matter what reasons underpin language loss, the outcome is consistent across all languages and contexts: Languages become endangered and will ultimately cease to exist when they are no longer transmitted intergenerationally.

In other words, children must be learning and using the language, either at home, in the community, or in schools. The spread of English worldwide, with an estimated 1.5 billion speakers as of 2015, has created a unique set of challenges relative to the language shift paradigm. On the one hand, there is the accelerated spread of English (and other majority languages), and on the other hand there is the endangered status of most of the world’s minority languages. The English language teaching profession has an obligation to share and work on language revitalization. Because research on language endangerment and language revitalization has implications for the formation of policy, particularly for the relationship between minority and majority languages, and because more empirical research needs to be conducted in communities and school settings to better understand language shift, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of language endangerment and the revitalization of endangered languages in specific contexts, to include communities and schools, and where a considerable amount of language documentation has already taken place. Although language documentation is a necessary component of language revitalization, TIRF is primarily interested in supporting research proposals that focus on the teaching and learning of endangered languages and cultures.

TIRF’s research priority on language endangerment and revitalization may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the following examples:

the development of effective instructional models;
the development of culturally appropriate materials and curricula;
the evaluation of materials, curricula, and programs;
the education and training of teachers;
the relationship between oral language development and literacy instruction; and
programs that focus on community involvement in language revitalization.

CURRICULUM, INSTRUCTION, AND TEACHER PREPARATION

Students’ Age and Effective English Language Education in Schools

Revised in 2017; First Adopted in 2002

The relationship between the age at which English is introduced as a second language, a foreign language, or as a medium of instruction in schools and how it affects the process of second language acquisition (SLA) and the development of literacy skills, is a research area that is of interest to TIRF. SLA is a lengthy and complex process for most language learners although some individuals would like to think it is fairly easy, especially for young children. TIRF seeks research proposals related to the effects of age of acquisition on language learning, to include both children and adult learners. Researchers have yet to reach a conclusion on how age in second language learning affects the eventual proficiency level of a learner, but there are important variables to consider. These variables include the following: a learner’s chronological age, the level of English skills, the native language of the learner, the number of years of schooling, and literacy development in one’s native language (L1). The role of the age factor and the possible existence of a critical period have been key factors in provoking research in second language acquisition (SLA) for many years, and both cognitive and neurobiological explanations of SLA recognize that there are different processes and strategies that learners use to further language development. In addition to cognitive factors, social and affective factors are known to influence the process of SLA and may be responsible for apparent differences in rate and levels of attainment between children and adult language learners, especially as differences are exhibited among individual language learners with similar profiles.

TIRF’s research priority on students’ age and effective English language education in business, industry, the professions, and education may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

the relationship between age and the duration and intensity of instruction;
the relationship between age and learning outcomes;
the impact of policies regarding age of initial English instruction on teacher education;
the influence of native language background;
the relationship between first language literacy learning and English language literacy learning, either in English-dominant or non-English-dominant countries;
the relationship of age on the attainment of academic language skills;
the relationship of age and the development of metalinguistic knowledge;
the influence of age and previously learned languages, to include oral language development and literacy; and
the relationship between age and rate of second language acquisition, to include oral language development and literacy.

Teaching English to Young Learners

First Adopted in 2017

It is commonly acknowledged that there are about one billion people who speak English in the world today. Children are learning English at younger ages in most countries around the world and English is a compulsory subject in many countries in the primary grades. The growing demand for English worldwide and the beliefs among parents that “younger is better” in terms of learning English and that the development of higher levels of English skills will provide their children with access to jobs and opportunities for upward mobility have resulted in more programs for teaching English to young learners. The motivations for introducing English to young learners cannot be based solely on assumptions about biological readiness. What may matter more than age in determining when to begin English instruction are factors such as how English is valued in the community, the conditions under which the language is offered, the type of instruction being used, children’s prior experiences with literacy, and the educational backgrounds of the teachers. Because research on teaching English to young learners has implications for the formation of policy and because more empirical research needs to be conducted on teaching English to young learners in school settings, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of language learning by children in different contexts worldwide.

TIRF’s research priority on teaching English to young learners may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

effective program models,
types of curricula in use and their effectiveness,
government policies regarding the starting age of English instruction,
inclusion of culturally appropriate materials,
effective use of learning strategies,
literacy instruction and oral language development,
age and literacy instruction,
duration and intensity of instruction,
assessment of young learners,
evaluation of programs and curricula, and
curricular continuity.

Content-based Instruction

First Adopted in 2017

Content-based instruction is characterized by its dual commitment to both content and language objectives. English language teachers in many contexts throughout the world are taking on additional teaching responsibilities that require them to work with academic non-language subject matter in addition to language. (We note that this focus is also referred to as CLIL –content and language integrated learning.) This movement toward the integration of language and content is principally motivated by the need to prepare English learners (ELs) in schools for mainstream academic content classes at grade level or to include ELs in mainstream classes at grade level in both primary and secondary settings. Academic language development in content classes requires careful planning across a curriculum or units of instruction, and English language teachers must understand the complex language-content relationships (i.e., a knowledge of how language works) in a specific discipline or content area and often across disciplines or subject areas, for example, the high-frequency use of figurative language in a language arts curriculum compared to the frequent use of cause-and-effect verbs in history. Because content-based instruction has implications for English learning and the formation of policy and because more empirical research needs to be conducted on integrating language and content in school settings and in higher education, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of this pedagogical practice.

TIRF’s research priority on content-based instruction may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

development of pedagogical content knowledge (how learners think as they acquire content),
preparation of teachers for work in contexts that require the simultaneous learning of language and content,
immersion models of instruction,
challenges of integrating content and language in multilingual higher education contexts,
diverse ways of combining content and language,
development of content-based curricula,
selection and sequencing of language items that are motivated by content,
collaborations between language teachers and content instructors,
assessment of learners’ language and content learning; and
evaluation of programs or curricular effectiveness.

Digital Technology in Language Education

Revised in 2015, 2017; First Adopted in 2004

This priority addresses the effects of digital technology on students’ English proficiency in relation to the availability and use of computers, tablets, and various mobile devices. This research priority also aims to address areas of concern to language teaching, such as teachers’ and learners’ technical competences when using digital technologies, the quality of instructional software, increased access to authentic materials, and affordances for interaction through the use of games, social media, and communication via text and audio/video (e.g., Skype, WeChat, WeTransfer, What’s App, Marco Polo, Google Hangouts, Facebook Chat, etc.).

TIRF’s research priority on digital technology may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

the impact of technologically advanced self-access instructional resources in non-English-dominant countries on students’ English proficiency;
the impact of conceptualizing the language classroom: language learning beyond the classroom;
computer-mediated communication with other learners and the development of students’ English language/literacy skills and intercultural understanding;
effective ways of training teachers in the use of new digital technologies (e.g., increasing digital teacher competences) for English language instruction;
learners’ access to target language interaction through online gaming, social media, and/or chat platforms;
benefits and/or drawbacks for learners, teachers, and school administrators from the use of mobile and digital handheld technology;
misapplications of digital technology in language learning and teaching;
access to digital technology, such as student access to technology, societal factors related to access, and access as a function of academic domain (science vs. humanities);
effectiveness of digital technology;
implementation of artificial intelligence (AI)-related principles that are ethical and enhance positive impacts in our field;
changing classroom paradigms, for example, blended learning;
digital learning and the four language skills; and
digital assessment.

Migrants and Refugees: Teaching and Assessing English

First Adopted in 2018

Teaching English to migrants and refugees and assessing their language proficiency are complex and complicated enterprises within the field of English language teaching (ELT). Because migrants (also called “immigrants” in some contexts) and refugees come from so many different geographical areas of the world, there are vast cultural and linguistic differences among them. In addition, they leave their home countries for different reasons—for example, to seek employment, to join family, or to flee violence and political persecution. They have different backgrounds and educational profiles; some have no formal schooling and no literacy skills in their home language, while others have higher education experience and hold academic or professional qualifications. In addition, migrants and refugees also differ in age; some are children in K12 primary school contexts, while others are adults or senior citizens. Teaching migrants and refugees may occur in the destination country, but it can also occur in camps or in other low-resource contexts.

Many migrants and refugees settle or wish to settle in BANA (Britain, Australian, and North American) countries (i.e., the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States)—countries that have historically accepted large numbers of immigrants. For migrants and refugees who settle or wish to settle in one of the BANA countries, learning English is a primary concern. It is the dominant language of a substantial majority of the population, so the ability to use English is necessary for successful communication in daily life, including schools. Within the ELT profession, different groups of migrants and refugees frequently require different professional teaching practices. For example, teaching young learners may need to be different from teaching adults with low proficiency levels and no literacy skills in their home languages. As a result of these differences, migrant and refugee English learners are often taught by teachers with different (and sometimes less-than-appropriate) kinds of training and experience. Teaching English to migrants and refugees has implications for the formation of language policy and planning. In addition, more empirical research is needed on teaching migrants and refugees in different contexts and at all ages, from young children in school settings to adults. For these reasons, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of teaching and assessing the English of migrant and refugee English learners in different contexts worldwide.

TIRF’s research priority on teaching and assessing the English of migrants and refugees may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the following examples:

effective program models;
types of curricula in use and their effectiveness;
government policies concerning migrants and refugees;
the development of literacy skills in low-proficiency level English learners;
inclusion of culturally appropriate materials;
effective use of learning strategies;
oral language development;
age and literacy instruction;
duration and intensity of instruction’
the influence of context on English language development;
assessment of migrant and refugee English learners; and
evaluation of programs and curricula.

Research on Revitalization of Endangered Indigenous Languages (curriculum and teaching foci)

First Adopted in 2018

TIRF’s research priority on language endangerment and revitalization may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the following examples:

the development of effective instructional models;
the development of culturally appropriate materials and curricula;
the evaluation of materials, curricula, and programs;
the education and training of teachers;
the relationship between oral language development and literacy instruction; and
programs that focus on community involvement in language revitalization.

LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Language Assessment

Revised in 2017; First Adopted in 2008

Language assessment is an increasingly important aspect of language education. The growing use of justification frameworks for the design, development, and evaluation of language tests, and the use of language proficiency frameworks that benchmark the performance of language learners, as well as educational systems, are important trends in large-scale English language proficiency testing. There is an on going requirement to use and develop sophisticated measurement tools, including online tools, and employ them with new and existing language assessment tools. In addition, all of these assessment tasks are being carried out in contexts where the impact that assessment has on stakeholders is a matter of interest and concern. Assessment is also an integral component of classroom language learning. How assessment is integrated into classroom instruction and into the process of language teaching and learning are of primary importance to researchers and teachers, especially how the results of assessments are used to monitor and respond to learners, develop learning activities and tasks, and create and refine the assessment process.

TIRF’s research priority on language assessment may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

measurement issues related to new techniques or tools or the innovative use of existing techniques or tools;
the development of testing materials;
the validation of testing tools;
the investigation of test impact and/or washback;
the use of technology in the administration of language assessments;
the reliability and validity of regional or local language assessment procedures;
the function of peer assessment;
self-assessment as a means of supporting learning;
assessment for learning or learning-oriented assessment; and
issues related to classroom-based assessment.

English as a Medium of Instruction (e.g., assessing the English of those who must teach in English)

Revised in 2017; First Adopted in 2015

TIRF’s research priority on EMI may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

reasons for introducing EMI in particular contexts;
timetables for introducing EMI into educational systems;
effective methods for delivering EMI;
consequences on teaching, learning, and assessment of introducing EMI;
professional development needs of teachers using EMI;
professional development activities and opportunities provided for teachers who use EMI;
determination of the English proficiency level needed by EMI teachers;
types of teaching and learning resources being used in EMI contexts;
code-switching, plurilingualism, and/or translanguaging in EMI contexts;
the role of the EMI teacher in creating opportunities for learning important content and developing language skills in educational contexts; and
the role of the EMI teacher in creating opportunities for learning important content and developing language skills in the workplace.

Content-based Instruction

First Adopted in 2017

TIRF’s research priority on content-based instruction may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

development of pedagogical content knowledge (how learners think as they acquire content),
preparation of teachers for work in contexts that require the simultaneous learning of language and content,
immersion models of instruction,
challenges of integrating content and language in multilingual higher education contexts,
diverse ways of combining content and language,
development of content-based curricula,
selection and sequencing of language items that are motivated by content,
collaborations between language teachers and content instructors,
assessment of learners’ language and content learning; and
evaluation of programs or curricular effectiveness.

Language Teacher Education (assessing teachers’ target language proficiency)

Revised in 2017; First Adopted in 2010

English language teachers play an important role in preparing English learners for successful participation in the 21st Century knowledge economy. The emergence of English as a global language has put enormous pressure on the profession of English language teaching worldwide. The demand for English language teachers in both public and private sectors far outstrips the supply of qualified teachers with formal training in teaching and experience in teaching. Responses to this situation have commonly been to employ “native speakers” who have no formal qualifications or experience in language teaching or to redeploy experienced teachers who have educational backgrounds and experience in teaching in other content areas other than English language education. Furthermore, teachers without formal professional preparation in English language teaching often teach as they were taught, which leads to the perpetuation of outmoded models of instructional design and the use of methods for second language pedagogy that are not linked to research, theory, or best practices. The result has been a deskilling and deprofessionalization of English language teaching. This situation, in turn, often results in relatively ineffective learning outcomes for English learners in many contexts worldwide.

TIRF’s research priority on language teacher education may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

the status of English language teaching at elementary, secondary and higher education levels;
the impact of English as a global language on teacher education policy and practices;
the role of technology in supporting initial and ongoing professional development;
the effectiveness of teacher education, in relation to teachers’ English language proficiency;
the effectiveness of ongoing professional development in relation to teachers’ English language proficiency;
the assessment of teachers’ English proficiency and determination of levels of competence required for effective curriculum delivery in English;
models of, and support for, ongoing professional development in public and private sectors (for example inquiry-based approaches to professional development);
entry-level qualifications for English language teachers at elementary, secondary and higher education sectors;
standards of practice in teacher education, including standards for language proficiency in various contexts;
formal and informal learning experiences undertaken by teachers and school leaders to improve their individual professional practice and the school’s collective effectiveness;
the relationship between teaching quality and learning outcomes; and
the relationship between methods of teaching that promote student involvement in learning and learning outcomes.

Teaching English to Young Learners (e.g., developing appropriate means of assessing young learners’ language development – also a recent “hot topic”)

First Adopted in 2017

TIRF’s research priority on teaching English to young learners may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

effective program models,
types of curricula in use and their effectiveness,
government policies regarding the starting age of English instruction,
inclusion of culturally appropriate materials,
effective use of learning strategies,
literacy instruction and oral language development,
age and literacy instruction,
duration and intensity of instruction,
assessment of young learners,
evaluation of programs and curricula, and
curricular continuity.

Migrants and Refugees: Teaching and Assessing English

First Adopted in 2018

TIRF’s research priority on teaching and assessing the English of migrants and refugees may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the following examples: