TIRF Research Topics

Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming the landscape of English language education and research. From large language models (e.g., ChatGPT, Google Gemini, Microsoft Copilot) to integrated learning platforms (e.g., Duolingo Max, Grammarly), AI has accelerated innovation in classroom instruction, learner engagement, writing support, speaking practice, and language assessment. These tools now enable personalized feedback, adaptive learning pathways, multimodal tutoring, and enhanced accessibility for diverse learners—including multilingual students, individuals with disabilities, and students in under-resourced environments. As adoption expands across formal and informal learning settings, AI has become a central force shaping how English is taught, learned, and researched worldwide.

At the same time, the rapid evolution of AI raises complex questions that call for rigorous inquiry. Educators and researchers must grapple with issues such as bias and fairness in automated scoring and feedback systems; data privacy and the responsible handling of learner-generated content; transparency, explainability, and the limitations of AI-generated feedback; and the shifting boundaries of authorship, creativity, and academic integrity. Additional concerns include the environmental costs of large-scale AI deployment, the risk of widening digital divides, and the need for equitable access to AI tools across different regions, institutions, and learner populations. These challenges highlight the importance of evidence-based frameworks that prioritize human-centered learning, uphold ethical principles, and support teachers’ evolving roles as facilitators, designers, and critical evaluators in AI-rich environments.

This topic invites research that investigates both the opportunities and the risks of AI in English language education. Of particular interest are studies examining AI-supported instructional design; human–AI collaboration in communicative tasks; AI-mediated assessment and feedback practices; AI-integrated teacher training and professional development; linguistic diversity and global Englishes in AI-driven technologies; and the transformation of applied linguistics research methods through AI-enabled tools, such as automated corpus analysis, multimodal data processing, and enhanced qualitative coding. In addition, proposals for studies of AI and the teaching and/or assessment of speaking, listening, and/or reading are welcome. TIRF also welcomes work focused on institutional policymaking, governance, and practical guidance to ensure that AI use in education remains transparent, equitable, and aligned with ethical and pedagogical best practices.

Through this topic, TIRF seeks to deepen global understanding of AI’s impact on English language education and research. By supporting investigations that illuminate promising practices, address emerging risks, and empower educators and learners, TIRF aims to help the field navigate a rapidly evolving technological landscape and ensure that AI serves as a catalyst for high-quality, inclusive, and human-centered language learning experiences worldwide.

To support researchers and educators exploring this topic, we wish to recognize the range of AI-enhanced tools influencing English language education worldwide. The platforms named below are not offered as an exhaustive list but rather as popular platforms widely used around the world. While TIRF does not endorse or prioritize any specific platform, nor is the Foundation interested in research funding requests based solely on a particular platform, the following examples illustrate the diversity of technologies that are shaping teaching, learning, and research across different regions.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2017

Content-based instruction (CBI) is characterized by its dual commitment to both content and language objectives. English language teachers in many contexts throughout the world are taking on additional teaching responsibilities that require them to work with academic non-language subject matter in addition to language. We note that this focus is also referred to by other terms, such as Content and language integrated learning [CLIL] in Europe. This movement toward the integration of language and content is principally motivated by the need to prepare English learners (ELs) in mainstream academic content classes at grade level or to include ELs in academic content classes at any stage of education, from primary through tertiary levels, including career and technical education programs in ESL and EFL contexts.

Academic language development in content classes requires careful planning across a curriculum or units of instruction, and English language teachers must understand the complex language-content relationships (i.e., a knowledge of how language works) in a specific discipline or content area and often across disciplines or subject areas, for example, the high-frequency use of figurative language in a language arts curriculum compared to the frequent use of cause-and-effect verbs in history. Because content-based instruction has implications for English learning and the formation of policy and because more empirical research needs to be conducted on integrating language and content in school settings and in higher education, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of this pedagogical practice.

TIRF’s research topic on content-based instruction may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• development of pedagogical content knowledge (how learners think as they acquire content);
• preparation of teachers for work in contexts that require the simultaneous learning of language and content;
• challenges of integrating content and language in multilingual higher education contexts;
• diverse ways of combining content and language (models of integrated language and content instruction (CBI, CLIL, ESP, immersion, task-based, project-based, thematic, etc.);
• development of content-based curricula;
• selection and sequencing of language items that are motivated by content;
• translanguaging in content-based classrooms;
• collaborations between language teachers and content instructors;
• assessment of learners’ language and content learning; and
• evaluation of programs or curricular effectiveness.

Revised in 2024, 2017, and 2015; First Adopted in 2004

This research topic addresses the effects of digital technology on students’ English proficiency in relation to the availability and use of computers, tablets, and various mobile devices. The research topic also aims to address areas of concern to language teachers, such as teachers’ technical competences when using digital technologies, the quality of instructional software, increased access to authentic materials, and affordances for interaction through the use of games, social media, communication via text and audio/video means (e.g., Skype, WeChat, WeTransfer, What’s App, Marco Polo, Google Hangouts, Facebook Chat, Zoom, etc.), and app-based language teaching and learning.

TIRF’s research topic on digital technology may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• the impact on students’ English proficiency of technologically advanced self-access instructional resources;
• the impact of conceptualizing language learning in terms of contexts beyond the physical classroom;
• computer-mediated communication with other learners and the development of students’ English language/literacy skills and intercultural understanding;
• effective ways of educating teachers in the use of new digital technologies (e.g., increasing digital teacher competences) for English language instruction;
• learners’ access to target language interaction through online gaming, social media, and/or chat platforms;
• benefits and/or drawbacks for language learners, teachers, and school administrators from the use of mobile and digital handheld technology;
• misapplications of digital technology in language learning and teaching;
• student access to digital technology, societal factors related to access, and access as a function of academic domain (e.g., science vs. humanities);
• effectiveness of digital technology;
• app-based language teaching and learning;
• implementation of artificial intelligence (AI)-related principles that are ethical and enhance positive impacts in language teaching, learning, and assessment;
• the processes and results of changing classroom paradigms, for example, hybrid or blended language learning;
• digital learning and the four language skills; and
• digital language assessment.

Revised in 2024 and 2017; First Adopted in 2015

In many educational contexts around the world, English has undergone an instructional shift as it has changed from its position as a foreign language to a medium of instruction. In other words, English is being used to deliver and teach content in the sciences, math, history, business, and engineering in public and private education and at all stages—primary, secondary, and tertiary. Many stakeholders (e.g., parents, policymakers, and teachers) see English medium instruction (EMI) as a tool for creating opportunities for English learners to achieve success in both educational and workplace environments and join a global academic and workplace community. Because EMI has implications for English learning and the formation of policy and because little empirical research has been conducted on EMI, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of this phenomenon.

TIRF’s research topic on EMI may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• reasons for introducing EMI in particular contexts;
• timetables for introducing EMI into educational systems;
• effective methods for delivering EMI;
• consequences on teaching, learning, and assessment of introducing EMI;
• professional development needs of teachers using EMI;
• professional development activities and opportunities provided for teachers who use EMI;
• determination of the English proficiency level needed by EMI teachers;
• types of teaching and learning resources being used in EMI contexts;
• code-switching, plurilingualism/multilingualism, and/or translanguaging in EMI contexts;
• the role of the EMI teacher in creating opportunities for learning important content and developing language skills in educational contexts; and
• the role of the EMI teacher in creating opportunities for learning important content and developing language skills in the workplace.

First Adopted in 2024

English for specific purposes (ESP) has been an important research issue for some time. Its main thrust is to determine the particular needs of English learners who must use English for workplace and/or communications, and to offer instructional programs which help learners develop their ESP skills. That development focus can influence speaking, listening, reading, and/or writing. It may emphasize any combination of vocabulary, grammatical structures, discourse, and/or speech acts required in particular communication contexts.

Situations that have been investigated in ESP research include English for medical personnel, for businesspersons, for hotel staff and tourism workers, for engineers, for accountants, for dentistry professionals, for police, and for aviation personnel, among others. The English needed for academic purposes (EAP) has also been studied, particularly in tertiary contexts.

Nevertheless, much work remains to be done, so TIRF seeks research proposals on a range of ESP-related issues. This goal is particularly important in contexts where (in)effective communication in English can have important consequences for health (e.g., in health care and dentistry) and safety (in aviation or factory work).

TIRF’s research topic on ESP may be addressed through various research topics, such as the following:

• effective program models;
• identifying the English communication contexts in which mastery of specialized language is required;
• determining the causes of communication breakdowns and strategies for repair in ESP contexts;
• developing and testing effective needs analysis procedures and curriculum design work for ESP courses and lessons;
• identifying individual lexical items and formulaic expressions frequently used in particular ESP context;
• identifying grammatical structures frequently used in particular ESP context;
• identifying the types of written and/or spoken genre frequently used in particular ESP context;
• identifying the speech acts frequently used in particular ESP context;
• determining the impact of ESP instruction;
• developing and validating appropriate ESP tests; and
• assessing learners progress in ESP courses.

Revised in 2024 and 2017; First Adopted in 2002

Individual learner differences such as age, gender, aptitude, previously known languages,  motivation, learning styles, learning strategies, and personality traits can affect the acquisition of additional languages. How individual differences influence additional language learning in informal environments outside of a classroom, formal learning in second and foreign language classrooms, or in English medium of instruction classrooms in schools and how individual differences might affect the process of second language acquisition (SLA) and the development of both oral language and literacy skills are research areas that are of interest to TIRF. SLA is a lengthy and complex process for most language learners although some individuals would like to think it is fairly easy, especially for young children. TIRF seeks research proposals related to the effects of individual differences on language learning, to include both children and adult learners. Cognitive, neurobiological, social, and affective factors are known to influence the process of SLA and may be responsible for apparent differences in rate and levels of attainment in addition the different processes and strategies that learners use to further language development.

TIRF’s research topic on individual learner differences may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such the following:

• the relationship between individual learner differences and the type, duration, and intensity of instruction;
• the relationship between individual learner differences and learning outcomes;
• the influence of previously known languages on the development of additional languages;
• the relationship between individual differences and literacy learning in known languages;
• the relationships among individual differences, second language acquisition, and communication disorders.
• the influence of individual differences on the attainment of academic language skills;
• the influence of individual differences on the development of metalinguistic knowledge;
• the influence of individual learner differences on oral language development and literacy; and
• the relationship between individual learner differences and rate of second language acquisition, to include oral language development and literacy.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2008

Language assessment is an increasingly important aspect of language education. The growing use of justification frameworks for the design, development, and evaluation of language tests, and the use of language proficiency frameworks that benchmark the performance of language learners, as well as educational systems, are important trends in large-scale English language proficiency testing. There is an ongoing requirement to use and develop sophisticated measurement tools, including online tools, and employ them with new and existing language assessment tools. The widespread use of AI has made this evolution of new assessment tools even more pressing to understand, apply, and create. In addition, all of these assessment tasks are being carried out in contexts where the impact that assessment has on stakeholders is a matter of interest and concern. Assessment is also an integral component of classroom language learning. How assessment is integrated into classroom instruction and into the process of language teaching and learning are of primary importance to researchers and teachers, especially how the results of assessments are used to monitor and respond to learners, develop learning activities and tasks, and create and refine the assessment process.

TIRF’s research topic on language assessment may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• measurement issues related to new techniques or tools or the innovative use of existing techniques or tools;
• the development of testing materials;
• the validation of testing tools;
• the investigation of test impact and/or washback;
• the use of AI in language assessments;
• the reliability and validity of regional or local language assessment procedures;
• the function of peer assessment;
• self-assessment as a means of supporting learning;
• assessment for learning or learning-oriented assessment; 
• considerations of justice, equality, diversity, and inclusion in language assessment;
• the integration of learning and assessment in the era of AI; and
• going beyond language new constructs in language assessment.

Revised in 2024 and 2017; First Adopted in 2013

Language planning encompasses all the processes, formal and informal, overt and covert, which shape the direction and nature of change in language. Language policy involves explicit decisions usually taken by authorities to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a language or language variety in a particular speech community, an institution or in a geo-political space, such as a nation. Some scholars envisage language policy as the superordinate category and see language planning as referring to the diverse concrete steps of its implementation.  Language practices is also an important category since how language is used can often contain rhetoric, modeling, or ideology that influences and leads to change in the form of language itself.

Governments and institutions often undertake language policy and planning initiatives to influence or change the language and literacy practices within a society. Stakeholders such as families and teachers are also engaged increasingly in language planning and policy and what used to be thought of as “top-down” or “bottom-up” planning and policy has become much more dynamic. In recent years, there has been an upsurge of practical language planning and policy making resulting from economic globalization, increased population movements, and the expansion of communication technologies linking all parts of the world in real time.  Global English is a key part of these phenomena.

TIRF’s research topic on language planning and policy may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• levels and/or types of language planning;
• language planners and their roles;
• failed plans and policies;
• the roles of local legal frameworks on LPP;
• link(s) between political theory and processes of LPP;
• social issues and LPP;
• social identity and power in language use contexts;
• conflict mitigation
• social cohesion
• language rights for linguistic minorities;
• gaps between what language policy proclaims and what is delivered;
• the influence of LPP on different social, regional or ethnic groups;
• teachers’ interpretations, modifications, enactments, and/or rejections of language policy;
• reactions to language policies in the media and/or among specific professional groups;
• the effects of communication technologies on language change and how these effects are addressed in language planning;
• language-in-education policy and planning;
• language policy and teacher education;
• plurilingualism and multilingual education policies and practices;
• macro, meso, and micro language policies and practices;
• language planning and implementation;
• assessment policies;
• research methods in language policy and planning;
• the marketing of higher education internationally and its impact on the language(s) of instruction; and
• the effects of the global use of English on educational language policy and publishing.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2010

English Language teachers play an important role in preparing English learners for successful participation in the 21st Century knowledge economy. The emergence of English as a global language has put enormous pressure on the profession of English language teaching worldwide. The demand for English language teachers in both public and private sectors far outstrips the supply of qualified teachers with formal training in teaching and experience in teaching. Responses to this situation have commonly been to employ “native speakers” who have no formal qualifications or experience in language teaching or to redeploy experienced teachers who have educational backgrounds and experience in teaching in content areas other than English language education. Furthermore, teachers without formal professional preparation in English language teaching often teach as they were taught, which leads to the perpetuation of outmoded models of instructional design and the use of methods for second language pedagogy that are not linked to research, theory, or best practices. The result has been a deskilling and deprofessionalization of English language teaching. This situation, in turn, often results in relatively ineffective learning outcomes for English learners in many contexts worldwide.

TIRF’s research topic on language teacher education may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• the status of English language teaching at elementary, secondary and higher education levels;
• the impact of English as a global language on teacher education policy and practices;
• the role of technology in supporting initial and ongoing professional development;
• the effectiveness of teacher education, in relation to teachers’ English language proficiency;
• the effectiveness of ongoing professional development in relation to teachers’ English language proficiency and/or teaching skills;
• the effectiveness of ongoing professional development for teaching English online;
• the assessment of teachers’ English proficiency and determination of levels of competence required for effective curriculum delivery in English;
• models of, and support for, ongoing professional development in public and private sectors;
• entry-level qualifications for English language teachers at elementary, secondary and higher education sectors;
• standards of practice in teacher education, including standards for language proficiency in various contexts;
• formal and informal learning experiences undertaken by teachers and school leaders to improve their individual professional practice and the school’s collective effectiveness;
• the relationship between teaching quality and learning outcomes;
• the relationship between learning outcomes and methods of teaching that promote student involvement in learning;
• The development of English teachers’ assessment literacy knowledge and practical language assessment skills; and
• the preparation of teachers to advocate for language learners and their families (in the case of young learners) and communities.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2018

Teaching English to migrants and refugees and assessing their language proficiency are complex and complicated enterprises within the field of English language teaching (ELT). Because migrants (also called “immigrants” in some contexts) and refugees come from so many different geographical areas of the world, there are vast cultural and linguistic differences among them. In addition, they leave their home countries for different reasons—for example, to seek employment, to join family, or to flee violence and political persecution. They have different backgrounds and educational profiles; some have no formal schooling and no literacy skills in their home language, while others have higher education experience and hold academic or professional qualifications. In addition, migrants and refugees also differ in age; some are children in K-12 primary school contexts, while others are adults or senior citizens. Teaching migrants and refugees may occur in the destination country, but it can also occur in camps or in other low-resource contexts.

Many migrants and refugees settle or wish to settle in BANA (Britain, Australian, and North American) countries (i.e., the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States)—countries that have historically accepted large numbers of immigrants. For migrants and refugees who settle or wish to settle in one of the BANA countries and other countries where English is widely used (e.g., Malaysia, Norway, Sweden), learning English is a primary concern. In BANA countries, English is the dominant language of a substantial majority of the population, so the ability to use English is necessary for successful communication in daily life, including schools and work contexts. Within the ELT profession, different groups of migrants and refugees frequently require different professional teaching practices. For example, teaching young learners may need to be different from teaching adults with low proficiency levels and no literacy skills in their home languages. As a result of these differences, migrant and refugee English learners are often taught by teachers with different (and sometimes less-than-appropriate) kinds of training and experience.

Teaching English to migrants and refugees has implications for the formation of language policy and planning. In addition, more empirical research is needed on teaching migrants and refugees in different contexts and at all ages, from young children in school settings to adults seeking employment or those already in the workforce. For these reasons, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of teaching and assessing English for migrant and refugee English learners in different contexts worldwide.

TIRF’s research topic on teaching and assessing the English of migrants and refugees may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the following examples:

• effective English teaching program models;
• types of curricula in use and their effectiveness;
• government policies concerning migrants and refugees;
• the development of literacy skills in low-proficiency English learners;
• inclusion of culturally appropriate materials;
• effective use of learning strategies;
• working with traumatized learners;
• assessing the language needs of migrants and refugee adults for employment;
• oral language development;
• age and literacy instruction;
• duration and intensity of instruction;
• the influence of context on English language development;
• attitudes of local people toward incoming refugees and immigrants;
• assessment of migrant and refugee English learners; and
• evaluation of programs and curricula.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2008

The term plurilingualism is primarily used to refer to an individual user’s knowledge of several languages or language varieties at different levels of proficiency and the ability to draw on these linguistic resources for communicative purposes in different contexts. Multilingualism is a term that is frequently used to capture the diversity of linguistic practices at both individual and societal levels. TIRF seeks research proposals on the effects of plurilingualism/multilingualism in business, industry, the professions, and education, including language-learning in classrooms.

TIRF wishes to promote research on plurilingualism/multilingualism for several reasons. First, the ubiquity of 21st century plurilingualism/multilingualism is discernable in the global diffusion of English, the emergence of Word Englishes, and the status of English as a world lingua franca. TIRF is interested in research on English and its relationship with other languages within the concept of plurilingualism/multilingualism, because globalization and internationalization pose new challenges to social cohesion and integration across countries. Second, TIRF is interested in promoting research on plurilingualism/multilingualism because the development of language skills remains essential if individuals are to benefit from global opportunities in employment and education and language skill development is also necessary for citizens to participate actively in the social and political processes, which are an integral part of democratic citizenship in multilingual societies—societies in which different languages co-exist in a geographical area. These concerns may also be relevant within multilingual businesses or corporations in which different languages not only co-exist but may also represent policy for the business or corporation for employees at various management levels. Many countries around the world also state their goals for education in terms of developing multicultural and intercultural citizens who are capable of interacting in a number of languages across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

TIRF’s research topic on plurilingualism/multilingualism in business, industry, the professions, and education may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• policies of corporations, businesses, and educational institutions toward pluriingualism/multilingualism;
• promotion and enforcement of policies related to plurilingualism/multilingualism;
• the impact of policies of plurilingualism/multilingualism on businesses, corporations, or educational institutions;
• the impact of a policies of plurilingualism/multilingualism on employees, including teachers;
• the assessment of plurilingualism/multilingualism in the workplace, including its uses, and its effects;
• opportunities provided in workplace environments to support plurilingual/multilingual language development;
• the evaluation of language education programs in the workplace;
• the influence of policies related to plurilingualism/multilingualism on hiring decisions;
• the challenges and opportunities for implementing plurilingualism/multilingualism in contexts dominated by English; and
• classroom practices that encourage plurilingualism/multilingualism.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2018

Many of the world’s minority languages are disappearing. Between 1490 and 2000 CE about half of the world’s languages died out. If the current trend continues, 90 percent of the existing languages would become extinct in 100 years. This loss to language diversity alone on our planet is staggering, to say nothing of the ethical and human rights issues that underpin such a loss, as well as the aesthetic, spiritual, and scientific concerns this loss raises for humanity itself. It is true that languages become extinct for a variety of reasons. Economic, geographical, religious, political, and psychological factors all exert their influence on the process of language shift. However, no matter what reasons underpin language loss, the outcome is consistent across all languages and contexts: Languages become endangered and will ultimately cease to exist when they are no longer transmitted intergenerationally.

Children must be learning and using the language, either at home, in the community, or in schools. The spread of English worldwide has created a unique set of challenges relative to the language shift paradigm. On the one hand, there is the accelerated spread of English (and other majority languages), and on the other hand, there is the endangered status of most of the world’s minority languages.

TIRF believes that the language teaching profession has an obligation to share and work on language revitalization. Because research on language endangerment and language revitalization has implications for the formation of policy, particularly for the relationship between minority and majority languages and because more empirical research needs to be conducted in communities and school settings to better understand language shift, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of language endangerment and the revitalization of endangered languages in specific contexts, to include communities and schools, and where a considerable amount of language documentation has already taken place. Although language documentation is a necessary component of language revitalization, TIRF is primarily interested in supporting research proposals that focus on the teaching and learning of endangered languages and cultures.

TIRF’s research topic on language endangerment and revitalization may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the following examples:

• the development of effective instructional models;
• the development of culturally appropriate materials and curricula;
• the evaluation of materials, curricula, and programs;
• the education and training of teachers;
• the relationship between oral language development and literacy instruction;
• the use of technology to promote language revitalization;
• the use of endangered languages within the diverse communities of the diaspora; and
• programs that focus on community involvement in language revitalization.

Revised in 2024; First Adopted in 2017

It is commonly acknowledged that there are about one billion people who speak English in the world today, and children are learning English at younger ages in most countries around the world. In fact, English is a compulsory subject in many countries in the primary grades. While there is growing demand for English worldwide, there has also been an increase in second and foreign language instruction in primary grades, for example, the increase in numbers of dual language immersion programs in North America. The belief among parents is that “younger is better” in terms of children’s ability to develop higher levels of language skills and that higher level skills will provide children with access to upward mobility and to jobs and opportunities.  However, the motivations for introducing young learners to additional languages early on cannot be based solely on assumptions about biological readiness. What may matter more than age in determining when to begin English instruction are factors such as how a target language is valued in a community, the conditions under which the language instruction is offered, the type of instruction being used, children’s prior experiences with literacy, and the education and backgrounds of the teachers. Because research on teaching second and foreign languages to young learners has implications for the formation of policy and because more empirical research needs to be conducted on teaching languages to young learners in school settings, TIRF seeks research proposals to promote our understanding of language learning by children in various contexts worldwide.

TIRF’s research topic on teaching second and foreign languages to young learners may be addressed through a number of different research topics, such as the examples that follow:

• effective program models;
• types of curricula in use and their effectiveness;
• government policies regarding the starting age of English instruction;
• inclusion of culturally appropriate materials’
• effective use of learning strategies;
• literacy instruction and oral language development;
• age and literacy instruction;
• duration and intensity of instruction;
• assessment of young learners;
• evaluation of programs and curricula; and
• curricular continuity.