Resource Library

This publication presents research on the practice of integrating content and language in diverse contexts where English is used as a medium of instruction. With chapters written by TIRF Doctoral Dissertation Grant awardees and other scholars, the volume offers an overview of a wide range of methodological approaches to teaching content in English to English learners and examines factors that impede or contribute to effective instruction. The chapters include findings from original empirical research, as well as overviews of existing research and model programs, providing valuable insights and taking into account a multitude of contextual features.

Offering up-to-date research on integrating language and content at the primary, secondary, and postsecondary levels, this book familiarizes readers with the latest advances in theory and practice. It is a key text for teacher education courses for preservice teachers, a resource for professional development programs for practicing teachers, and a useful reference for researchers.

Research on Integrating Language and Content in Diverse Contexts is the latest volume in the TIRF-Routledge “Global Research on Teaching and Learning English” series. The book is the ninth volume in the “Global Research” series.

Three long-time TIRF Trustees collaborated to compile the volume. MaryAnn Christison, Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Linguistics and the Urban Institute for Teacher Education at the University of Utah; JoAnn (Jodi) Crandall, Professor Emerita and former Director of the Language, Literacy, and Culture Ph.D. Program and Co-Director of the MA TESOL Program at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County; and Donna Christian, a Senior Fellow at the Center for Applied Linguistics in Washington, D.C. are the co-editors of Research on Integrating Content and Language in Diverse Contexts.

TIRF would like to acknowledge the contributions of all the authors and editors. We are grateful for their scholarship and dedication to furthering research in our field, as well as for agreeing to forego any royalties or honoraria, so that any profits may be used for TIRF initiatives.

To learn more about the volume, including how to purchase a copy, please click here.

Empowering Learners & Educators: English for Career Readiness

In today’s rapidly evolving job market, English proficiency has become a crucial asset for career success. Whether in business, technology, healthcare, or academia, professionals around the world rely on English to collaborate, innovate, and communicate effectively.

Context: The demand for English in the workplace extends beyond technical knowledge. Research shows that employers highly value soft skills—such as communication, problem-solving, and adaptability—alongside language proficiency. Equipping learners with both linguistic and interpersonal skills is essential for their long-term career development.

Dive in (one-minute read)

What the Research Says: English is the world’s predominant lingua franca, with millions of professionals using it daily to engage in global business and academic discourse. However, success in the workplace requires more than fluency; it calls for intercultural competence, critical thinking, and the ability to collaborate across diverse teams.

Why it Matters: As industries evolve, so do employer expectations. Professionals need to navigate complex, multicultural work environments where effective communication is key. Integrating soft skills into English language education prepares learners to meet these challenges and thrive in their careers.

What’s Next: Governments, businesses, and educators increasingly recognize the importance of embedding career readiness into English language instruction. Schools and training programs are adapting curricula to develop not only language proficiency but also the soft skills essential for professional success.

Read the Report: In this latest TIRF Insights paper from TIRF and National Geographic Learning, author Chia Suan Chong explores the intersection of English proficiency and career readiness. She highlights how educators can integrate soft skills into language learning to better prepare students for the workforce. Complete the form at the link below to download the paper.

Calls to Action: Use these discussion questions to explore how career readiness can be integrated into English language education:

1. How does English proficiency impact career opportunities in different industries?
2. What soft skills are most valuable for professionals in global workplaces? How can these be cultivated in English language learning?
3. How can educators design lessons that blend language development with real-world communication and problem-solving skills?
4. What challenges do learners face when using English in professional settings? How can schools and training programs better support them?
5. How can employers and educators collaborate to ensure that English language education aligns with workforce needs?

About TIRF Insights: “TIRF Insights” profiles recent research in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) in a practical and accessible format. Our publications are written for parents, teachers, school leaders, and all student advocates who want to review recent educational trends in a nonacademic way. This paper on English for Career Readiness is available in English, Arabic, Chinese, and Spanish.

In February 2017, we released the fourth volume in the series entitled, “Global Research on Teaching and Learning English,” which is co-published with Routledge/Taylor & Francis.

This volume features a carefully balanced set of studies and practitioner research projects carried out in various learning contexts around the world. Digital Language Learning and Teaching highlights cutting-edge research in the use of digital learning technologies in language classrooms and in online learning. Providing an overview of recent developments in the application of educational technology to language learning and teaching, it looks at the experience of researchers and practitioners in both formal and informal (self-study) learning contexts, bringing readers up-to-date with this rapidly changing field and the latest developments in research, theory, and practice at both classroom and education system levels. The volume is co-edited by Michael Carrier (TIRF Trustee), Ryan M. Damerow (TIRF Chief Operating Officer), and Kathleen M. Bailey (TIRF President).

For more information about the book, including how to order, please click here. Please note that all royalties earned from the sale of the book will be donated to TIRF to help fund our programs.

In February 2018, we released the fifth volume in the series entitled, “Global Research on Teaching and Learning English,” which is co-published with Routledge/Taylor & Francis. This volume is co-edited by TIRF Trustees Dr. Jodi Crandall and Dr. Kathi Bailey.

This volume presents research on language policy and planning, with a special focus on educational contexts in which English plays a role. Global Perspectives on Language Education Policies brings readers up-to-date on the latest developments in research, theory, and practice in a rapidly changing field. The diversity of authors, research settings, and related topics offers a sample of empirical studies across multiple language teaching and university contexts. This volume features access to both new and previously unpublished research in chapters written by TIRF Doctoral Dissertation Grant awardees and invited chapters by respected scholars in the field.

For more information about the book, including how to order, please click here. Please note that all royalties earned from the sale of the book will be donated to TIRF to help fund our programs.

Re-skilling Language Learners for a Mobile World

For the main paper, click here.

Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, Professor of Learning Technology and Communication, The Open University

Executive Summary: Ubiquitous access to mobile phones and other portable devices means that language learning increasingly straddles classroom-based learning and learning outside the classroom, in virtual spaces and out in the world. We know from studies of emergent learner-led practices that foreign language study can be enriched through easy access to resources selected to suit individual interests or needs. Yet learners’ choices seem largely determined by what they happen to come across, rather than knowledge about which language skills are best improved through mobile learning. Existing mobile applications often fail to exploit connections between life and learning. This paper suggests which language skills can be enhanced through mobile learning and how learner-technology interaction supports that development, particularly opportunities for learners to extend or practice their communication with others. The paper also suggests that new skills may be required in relation to the next generation of wearable devices and increasingly instrumented, technology-rich surroundings where use of mobile technology integrates with other tools, resources, and social networks that continue to challenge traditional knowledge and skills.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Richard Boyum, University Partnership and Grants Evaluation Coordinator for Afghanistan and Pakistan, US State Department, USA

Read the discussion by clicking here.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Sky Lantz-Wagner, ESL Instructor, University of Dayton, USA

Read the discussion by clicking here.

Terms of Use and Disclaimer: TIRF is providing this information as a service to our constituents, and no endorsement by TIRF of the ideas presented in this paper is intended or implied. The information is made available free of charge and may be shared, with proper attribution. However, the papers may not be reprinted without express written permission from TIRF.

This book is the eighth volume in the Global Research on Teaching and Learning English series, co-published with Routledge (Taylor & Francis). It brings together the latest developments in research on teaching English in under-resourced contexts across the world, offering a window into the complex challenges that these communities face. Recommendations from research and experience in well-resourced contexts are frequently not relevant or feasible in different circumstances. Contributors explore local and regional assets and challenges to provide a deeper understanding of the difficult issues that language learners and teachers must confront, and they provide insights to meet those challenges.

With chapters written by TIRF Doctoral Dissertation Grant awardees, the volume addresses the crucial and growing need for research-based conversations on the contexts, environments, and challenges of teaching English in areas of the world with limited resources, literacy levels or other constraints.

The volume includes sections on policy connections, teacher preparation, and practice insights. It is a useful resource for graduate students and teacher educators in language education, ESL/EFL education, and international education, and an enlightening reference for all readers with an interest in language education around the world.

To view the book, please click here.

Many stakeholders (e.g., parents, policymakers, students, and teachers) see English as a medium instruction (EMI) as a tool for creating opportunities for English learners to achieve success in both educational and workplace environments, and to join a global academic and workplace community. EMI has major implications for English language learning and the formation of policy, with a range of stakeholders affected when new decisions are made.

This paper is useful to universities struggling to make sense of the language issues around mobility of students, proficiency of the faculty, etc., and includes recommendations of what would need to be in the policies of universities, faculties, and departments.

TIRF is pleased to be working with Laureate International Universities and Dr. Joyce Kling, the author, to produce this first paper in this series. Please click here to access this paper.

As part of TIRF’s mission to sponsor and disseminate cutting edge research into language education, we have commissioned a set of papers on different aspects of handheld language learning, to be published in the first instance as free downloads on our website. Each of these papers aims to summarize the state of our knowledge concerning the use and effects of handheld devices on the outcomes of English language learning.

More information on our mobile-assisted assisted language learning commissioned papers can be found by clicking here.

(Download this publication here: https://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/LEiR_CEFR.pdf)

A recent search for the term “CEFR” (the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) on Google Scholar gave the following results: approximately 28,000 hits with no time frame; 12,700 hits since 2015; approximately 3,900 hits in 2018; and approximately 700 hits in the first three months of 2019. In other words, there is an abundance of work on the CEFR – an embarrassment of riches perhaps, that makes it very difficult for any single publication to summarize all the research that has been done, and that is being done, on the CEFR.

Examples of CEFR research published in 2019 include the paper by Afir, Hamid, and Renshaw on the use of the CEFR in Malaysia. In that paper, the authors start by stating that the CEFR “has emerged as a global policy in language education which has been ‘borrowed’ by nations across the world” (p. 1). That notion of ‘borrowing’ refers to the fact that the CEFR was originally designed by Europeans for Europeans, but now appears to have taken on a life of its own, being referred to in teaching, learning, and testing contexts far away from Europe, not only geographically far-removed in space and time, but also far-removed in terms of histories, languages, and cultures.

In a paper published in 2018, also on the implementation of the CEFR in Malaysia, Azia, Rashid, and Zainudin concluded that “the implementation of CEFR in Malaysia still needs to be improved. All the stakeholders need to be properly synchronised, aware of their responsibility and updated with the latest information” (2018, p. 415, emphasis added). Those two papers (and others) on the CEFR in Malaysia highlight one of the challenges of employing the Framework, i.e., the context – geographical, linguistic, cultural, educational, etc. Another challenge relates to being “updated with the latest information” on the CEFR, as so much CEFR-related research is being done, and so many papers on the Framework are being published.

Other papers reiterate this recurring theme of contextual challenges. For example, working with Spanish learners of English in Spain, Díez-Bedmar (2018) found that “despite the current importance of the CEFR in the learning, teaching, and assessment of languages, limitations arise in the use of the CEFR descriptors, which are also present in the European Language Portfolio (ELP)” (p. 199, emphasis added).

Another context for CEFR research has been Canada. For example, Arnott, Brogden, Faez, Péguret, Piccardo, et al. (2017) proposed a research agenda for the CEFR in Canada. In their paper, the authors conclude with a series of questions, including the following:

• “What policies currently exist or might need to be created in order to support CEFR use within and across the provinces at all three levels of education for a variety of languages?
• What professional development opportunities are currently being offered, and what further types of scaffolding are needed to support language teachers?
• How is the CEFR currently being used, and how might it be used to greater advantage in order to enhance language learning?
• How do students experience CEFR-informed instruction, and what types of impact does it have?” (Arnott, Brogden, Faez, Péguret, Piccardo et al., 2017, p. 47)

On the basis of the third question above – “How is the CEFR currently being used, and how might it be used to greater advantage in order to enhance language learning?” – TIRF commissioned Professor Enrica Piccardo, Professor of Applied Linguistics and Language Education at OISE (University of Toronto), to author the second paper in TIRF’s LEiR series.

TIRF remains grateful for partnering with Laureate Languages to commission The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) in Language Education: Past, Present, and Future, and thanks Prof. Piccardo’s diligence in authoring the paper. Please click here to access the paper.

– Andy Curtis, Chair of TIRF’s Publications Committee

TIRF is pleased to announce that a Chinese translation of The Impact of English and Plurilingualism in Global Corporations has appeared in the 2010 English Career, Volumes 33 and  34 (June and October), a magazine which is published in Taiwan. We are grateful to the editors and to Ms. Kuan-Ling Lin and Mr. Chao-Min Hsu for the translation.

This FreeBook features chapters on teaching English to young multilingual learners from the “Global Research on Teaching and Learning English” series, co-published by TIRF and Routledge. There are five chapters included in this publication from four different volumes in the Series. To download the FreeBook, click here.

About the Series

The “Global Research on Teaching and Learning English” series, co-published by The International Research Foundation for English Language Education and Routledge, showcases research by scholars from around the world, whose research has been funded by grants from TIRF, awarded through a carefully vetted international competition. Since 2002, TIRF, an independent foundation started by the TESOL International Association (TESOL) in 1998, has commissioned and/or funded research on a range of topics associated with the teaching and learning of English worldwide. This series offers a collection of previously unpublished empirical studies conducted by grant recipients throughout the world, as well as chapters from invited scholars. Volumes in the series report on issues of current concern to the applied linguistics community and the language teaching profession, and present a wide variety of research topics investigated through a range of research procedures. 

Most chapters appearing in volumes in this series cover issues that motivated the research, the context of the research, research question(s) addressed, data collection and data analysis procedures, findings and discussion, and implications for policy, practice, and future research. This chapter structure helps to achieve consistency and coherence across the volumes, while at the same time allowing individual authors to report on the unique contents of their own studies. The authors and editors forego any honoraria so that all the royalties from the sales of this series can be used to support TIRF’s programs. 

Beyond the Classroom: Mobile Learning the Wider World

For the main page, click here.

Ken Beatty, Professor of TESOL, Anaheim University

Executive Summary: Mobile learning has extended opportunities for making teaching and learning available beyond the traditional classroom. Associated technologies, software programs, and internet access have enfranchised many students who previously had little access to quality teaching. However, a paradigm shift has occurred in which learners are turning to new mobile learning opportunities to supplant traditional teaching as virtual extensions of earlier self-help books, phrase books, and audio-based language learning programs. Audio translation apps, augmented reality, and just-in-time learning approaches are providing alternatives to those with neither access nor time to learn a language. This paper examines the theoretical underpinnings of a range of technologies and applications, contrasting them with the traditional classroom and imagining the future of mobile language teaching and learning and the impact it will have on policymakers, teachers, employers, and learners.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Leonardo A. Mercado, Academic Director, Instituto Cultural Peruano Norteamericano (ICPNA), Peru

Read Leonardo A. Mercado’s discussion of this paper by clicking here.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Joyce Wangia, Director, Centre for Institutional Based Programmes, Kenyatta University, Kenya

Read Joyce Wangia’s discussion of this paper by clicking here.

Terms of Use and Disclaimer: TIRF is providing this information as a service to our constituents, and no endorsement by TIRF of the ideas presented in this paper is intended or implied. The information is made available free of charge and may be shared, with proper attribution. However, the papers may not be reprinted without express written permission from TIRF.

TIRF Insights: Social and Emotional Learning is available in four languages: Arabic, Chinese (Simplified), English, and Spanish.

This paper, authored by Katherine (Kath) Stannett, investigates social and emotional learning (SEL) against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic and consequent disrupted education and learning loss.

Recent research suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic has led to disrupted education, learning loss, and the wide-scale use of hybrid and online teaching and learning. The pandemic has also revealed and underscored a need to address not only students’ academic skills but also their social and emotional skills.

This paper is made available to the public for free. Use these links to access the publication:

• Arabic
• Chinese (Simplified)
• English
• Spanish

TIRF is pleased to have worked with author Kath Stannett, an England-based teacher trainer and materials writer, and in collaboration with Laureate International Universities and National Geographic Learning, to produce this first paper in the “TIRF Insights” series. This series was formerly known as “TIRF Language Education in Review.”

Via “TIRF Insights,” the Foundation profiles recent research in the field of English Language Teaching in a practical and accessible format. Our publication is written for parents, teachers, school leaders, and all student advocates who want to review recent educational trends in a nonacademic way.

Click here to download the English version of TIRF Insights: Social Emotional Learning.

The FreeBook TIRF has co-published with Routledge features one chapter in each of the six previously published books in the “Global Research in Teaching and Learning English” series.

To download the FreeBook, click here.

Some Emerging Principles for Mobile-assisted Language Learning

For the main paper, click here.

Glenn Stockwell, Professor, Waseda University

Philip Hubbard, Senior Lecturer and Director of English for Foreign Students, Stanford University Language Center

Executive Summary: The steadily increasing access to sophisticated but affordable portable technologies over the past several years has brought with it a body of research into using these technologies for learning in both formal and informal contexts. It is not surprising, then, that language teachers have also adopted mobile technologies into their individual teaching and learning contexts. This paper first examines recent studies from the mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) literature, exploring the issues that emerge from this body of research through a framework distinguishing physical, pedagogical, and psycho-social dimensions. Recognizing not only the contributions but also the limitations of existing MALL literature, it then identifies a number of findings from the closely allied fields of mobile learning (ML) and computer-assisted language learning (CALL) that can inform both research and practice in MALL. Drawing from all three sources (MALL, ML, and CALL), the paper proposes ten general principles to guide teachers, learners, administrators, employers, and other stakeholders in the challenge of effectively integrating mobile devices and tasks into language learning environments. The paper concludes with a case study showing how each of the principles described have been applied in an actual mobile language learning context.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Tarana Patel, Founder & Educator, learnEd, India

Read the discussion by clicking here.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Simone Smala, Professor, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

Read the discussion by clicking here.

Terms of Use and Disclaimer: TIRF is providing this information as a service to our constituents, and no endorsement by TIRF of the ideas presented in this paper is intended or implied. The information is made available free of charge and may be shared, with proper attribution. However, the papers may not be reprinted without express written permission from TIRF.

TIRF’s 2013 commissioned study is titled, A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. This paper investigates a range of online professional development opportunities offered by institutions around the world. We would like to recognize TIRF Trustee Dr. David Nunan and Anaheim University for their financial support of this report.

We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to Dr. Denise Murray (Professor Emerita, Maquarie University, Sydney, Australia), principal author of this study, for her diligence and professionalism in conducting this research-based paper. This study is based on a series of eighteen case reports about online professional development opportunities for language teachers. We are especially thankful for the expertise of each of these eighteen contributors.

• Click here to download the paper. (For a printer-friendly version, click here.)
• To access and download the case reports utilized in this study, click here.

Designer Learning: The Teacher as Designer of Mobile-based Classroom Learning Experiences

For the main paper, click here.

Nicky Hockly, Director of Pedagogy, The Consultants-E

Executive Summary: This paper takes as its starting point Laurillard’s (2012) assertion that classroom practitioners need to become designers of effective learning experiences. It describes a small-scale classroom-based action research project carried out with two different levels of international EFL students studying in the UK, over a two-week period. Through the experience of implementing mobile-based communicative classroom tasks with these learners, six parameters for the effective design and sequencing of these tasks became apparent: (1) hardware, (2) mobility, (3) technological complexity, (4) linguistic/communicative competence, (5) type of MALL, and (6) educational /learning context.

This paper describes the study and proposes these six parameters as key to designing effective mobile-based tasks for the communicative language classroom. It is hoped that these parameters may be applicable to other fields in education. Finally, areas of concern within the study are explored, suggestions are made for future classroom-based research, and the importance of teacher training is highlighted.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Xueting Wang, Assistant Professor, DLIFLC, USA

Read the discussion by Xueting Wang by clicking here.

Discussion of this paper provided by: Anne Burns, Professor in Language Education & Director of the Centre for Language Education Research at Aston (CLERA), United Kingdom

Read the discussion by Anne Burns by clicking here.

Terms of Use and Disclaimer: TIRF is providing this information as a service to our constituents, and no endorsement by TIRF of the ideas presented in this paper is intended or implied. The information is made available free of charge and may be shared, with proper attribution. However, the papers may not be reprinted without express written permission from TIRF.

In March 2015, we published our second full-length book in cooperation with Routledge/Taylor & Francis. This book is the second in the series entitled, “Global Research on Teaching and Learning English.”

The volume is co-edited by MaryAnn Christison (TIRF Trustee & Chair of TIRF’s Research Advisory Comittee), Donna Christian (TIRF Trustee & Treasurer-Secretary), Patricia Duff (Former TIRF Trustee), and Nina Spada (TIRF Grantee). This grammar-focused publication is dedicated to Dr. Betty Azar for her support during TIRF’s early years, as she was a major supporter of our grant programs. The volume features a collection of work that resulted from TIRF grants, which were awarded to individuals whose research focused on grammar in language education.

For more information about the book, including how to order, please click here. Please note that all royalties earned from the sale of the book will be donated to TIRF to help fund our programs.

The Foundation is pleased to share access to a translated Chinese version of its 2012 report regarding English language training for the 21st-century workforce. Click here to access the translated paper. We are extremely thankful to our colleagues at English Career magazine for making this report available to Chinese readers. We would also like to recognize Ms. Yi-hua Lin for helping to check the translation of the paper.

TIRF’s first publication was in 2009 and is entitled, The Impact of English and Plurilingualism in Global Corporations. The full version of the report is available here.

To see a summary of this report, please click here.